Every human being by his/her very existence expresses that he/she wants to be something or someone in the society. Ever since the first human species appeared on the earth, there has been a progressive evolution of humanity. The development of art and culture shows human creativity in its entire splendor. At first the humanity was a God-like species; without any discrimination or inequality; with everyone maintaining the dignity of oneself as well as of the other. This does not mean that now the humanity is not God-like species. Human beings have forgotten the basic fact that they are created in the image of God, and that they should respect the dignity of their brothers and sisters.

In the midst of such rapid progress and creative evolution of humanity, it is shocking to note that our world is enshrined with evil practices; there is discrimination, inequality based on caste, race, class, religion, etc. Caste system has become the root cause of the evil practices such as gender discrimination and inequality between the poor and the rich, between the powerful and the oppressed. Although there is no society in the world where caste is absent, there is no society more affected than the Indian society.

Caste is rampant in India. The belief of every theistic religion about the creation, especially of the human being, as the hand work of God would mean that the human being occupies a unique status in his/her relationship with God, and as a result, every individual is entitled to equal dignity and respect. Hence human being, created in the image of God, possesses a divine element which must be realized by everyone. But this realization is made difficult by the evil system of the society- caste system. Caste system in its very essence is abominable and devalues any humanness that resides in a person.

The paper, cited as ‘a vivid understanding of human dignity and the presence of the Divine in the other calls for the denunciation of Caste System and its unethical practices,’ contains three chapters. The procedure of this paper is as follows: the first chapter deals with the understanding of human dignity, its meaning, and the different approaches of human dignity. It also deals with human right which is closely connected to the human dignity and the essential aspects of human dignity. The second chapter deals with the second part of the topic—the divine element in the other. It mainly deals with the realization of the divine in human person for which the eastern approach proposes some ways/mārgas to realize the same. Some famous philosophers of the west who spoke of the divine element are also discussed in the chapter.

The third chapter, more specifically deals with Caste system. It deals with the definitions and meaning of caste system, its origin and its salient features. It also deals with some of the unethical practices of caste system and the two important persons who are well noted for fighting to denounce caste system and its unethical manifestations. The general conclusion is my personal view of the denunciation of caste system.

Before proceeding to the first chapter, I humbly make the following acknowledgements. First and foremost I express my sincere gratitude to God for all His blessings and graces without which I would not be able to complete this work. Next, I express my heartfelt gratitude to Fr. Jince Kallanickal SDB, who helped me in doing this paper. I express my sincere thanks to him for his timely correction and support that enabled me to complete the paper. I also express my gratitude to Fr. Francis Vattukulam SDB, for giving me the permission to proceed my paper with this topic. And I thank him for giving me his doctoral thesis for reference which enabled me to get further information on Caste System. I humbly admit my errors. Finally I express my thanks to all my friends who helped me in one way or the other to do this paper.

CHAPTER ONE

THE UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN DIGNITY

1.1 Introduction

Many declarations have recognized the inherent dignity and the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family to be the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. But one feels ashamed to say that our country is one of the most corrupt in the entire world. There is terrorism and violence in many parts of the country. The most of the violences are against women; like rapes, dowry deaths, gender discriminations, etc. The world today experiences a lot of misuse of Human Dignity. The poor are tortured and oppressed by the rich. The basic questions which should be answered are: Where is human dignity? Is it respected? Do we have dignity as persons?

The present chapter mainly deals with Human Dignity; its meaning and its expressions. After understanding the meaning and expressions of Dignity, we move on to understand human right which is closely related to human dignity. Then the chapter will focus on the different understandings of Human Dignity both from eastern and western perspective which will be followed by the essential aspects of Human Dignity.

1.2 Terminology

One of the values that make one dignified is his/her very existence as a person. No creature in the world except human being is highly respected and dignified in the world. Dignity is given to all human beings. Dignity of the human being is an essential concept in the society as well as in morality, because through it the quality and honor of the people can be determined. And from the sense of dignity the concept of Human rights can be measured.[1]

1.2.1 Etymology

Etymologically the word dignity comes from the Latin noun word “dignitatis” meaning “worthy." It has its roots in old French ‘dignete’ or modern French dignite’, [2] meaning “greatness”, “grandeur”, “honor”, “nobility” etc. The full meaning of the dignity is “being worthy of respect, high rank or position”.[3]

The above meanings state that the very existence of a person is worthful on earth. He/she deserves respect on earth. To a greater part, these words reveal a certain sense of a worth or worthiness. Greek word axios (axia), although denoting value or price denotes also dignity, honor, rank and respect.[4] It is also apt to mention some Sanskrit terms which denote human dignity. The Sanskrit terms ‘utkṛstata,’ ‘utkars,’ ‘pratipatti’[5] refer to what we have already mentioned earlier: ‘being worthy of respect, high rank or position.’

1.2.2 Meaning of Human Dignity

The author of the book Justice and Equality, Hugo A. Bedau speaks of the necessity of human dignity in the society as well as in the moral life of a person. In it he says “dignity of Human Being is an essential concept in the society as well as in the morality, because through it the quality and honor of the people can be determined.” From the sense of dignity the concept of human rights can also be measured. The dignity is not only limited to the economic system, rather it touches the various areas of the people like health, food, education, liberty, equality and so on.[6]

Human dignity is innate and given to us by God. There can be two forms of Human dignity: intrinsic and extrinsic dignity. Intrinsic dignity refers to the dignity which is unearned. Every individual, in spite of the differences of caste, color, creed or culture, has this form of dignity.[7] Sometimes this intrinsic dignity or worthiness of people is not recognized. The result of not recognizing this is violence, inequality and all other evil practices against human being.

Another form of dignity is extrinsic dignity. It is not something essential to being human and as such rather contingent. Therefore, the possession of this dignity is completely variable, depending from people to people. Here the word ‘dignity’ implies a certain respect, admiration, civility and virtue. Unlike intrinsic dignity, it is earned.[8] Every human life, Christian or not, is sacred and of inestimable value because each life is created in the image of God. The likeness of God is impressed upon each human spirit. This status is not reserved for Christians alone but extends to every member of the human family.

1.3 Human Rights

The aim of placing human rights here is to understand the deeper dimension of human dignity arising from the intrinsic worth or value of human person created in the image and likeness of God. Human rights are the recognition of the inherent dignity of human beings. Human rights, just like human dignity, are inalienable and therefore it cannot be just given or taken away by any external authority. People are born with human dignity and human rights. So the society has to only recognize it. This recognition and respect of human rights of individual promote freedom, justice and peace.

Once one is born as a human person, he/she automatically possesses intrinsic rights that are common to all human beings. What do we mean when we say human rights? What are they? The answer for the questions is found in the book named Human Rights, Law and Gender Justice, “Human rights are rights which all human beings possess by virtue of human conditions. Human rights mean the right to life, liberty, equality and dignity of the individual legally guaranteed by Human Rights Law. Dignity and equal inalienable rights of the people are the foundation of freedom, justice and peace.”[9]

Each and every individual, irrespective of race, color, sex, religion, social origin or other status is entitled to those rights which are enforced by the states or governments. These rights, as I said above, are common to all. These rights don’t depend on any theory of ‘divine,’ ‘moral’ or any other kinds of rights.

1.4 Different Approaches on Human Dignity

Human life is at the apex, is the richest and most sublime form among the manifold forms of life in the world. Besides the approval from the Sacred Scriptures or from different sciences, the very organism of man himself witnesses to this fact; in his activities he is to dominate the world.[10] The uniqueness of human life is well understood in Christianity and Hinduism.

Firstly the chapter discusses from Hindu perspective where in they speak of human dignity from the view of human body since they consider human body as the only possibility to reach ‘Brahmasakshatkara- union with Brahman.’[11] But in Christian perspective, more emphasis is on human being as created in the image of God.

1.4.1 The Upaniṣadic Understanding

Human body is highly considered and its care and nutrition are strongly recommended in Upaniṣads. The reason is that the cultural and spiritual possibilities in human life are made possible in and through human body alone and that the realization of the spirit cannot be thought of without the medium of the body, so the Upaniṣadic sages advocated respect of the body and care for it.[12] The dignity of the human body in the Upaniṣads may be termed a functional dignity as different from the intrinsic dignity of the Christian consideration of the human body.[13] A challenge of Upaniṣadic understanding of man, just like biblical view, would be to recognize the dignity of the person in every human subject from conception up to the natural death.[14]

Upaniṣadic Anthropology roots man most ontologically in the divine Absolute.[15] The Upaniṣads believe in the dignity of the person and hence of his body, as a result of the union or identification of the body with the Brahman. According to them an act of violation against human body would not only be an act against the human person, but even against Brahman himself since they believe body as an abode of Brahman.

1.4.2 The Biblical Understanding

In the Bible the dignity of man is placed in the highest level. It is the recognition that human beings are worth of a particular level of value or respect simply because they are human beings, since it is the result of being created in the ‘image’ of God. This means that each and every human being has equal and irreducible dignity. All human beings are basically equal. God is the giver of life, and He forbids violence against life. Here God reminds us that every one is the protector of one’s fellow beings.[16]

The Bible speaks of the relation of God to human being in three ways; first, he/she is the creation of God. Second, it is distorted by sin and is under divine judgment.[17] Third, he/she is a part of God’s work of salvation. Humankind and its history have been seen as divine creation, divine judgment and divine preparation for salvation.[18]

1.4.2.1 The Old Testament

The concept of the sanctity of life can be seen in the Old Testament. There is a close relationship between God and human being. In the Bible, the word ‘life’ is used as God’s salvific action. God created human being in his own ‘image’ and ‘likeness’. This highlights the uniqueness of human beings. The image of God in humanity refers to the rational, moral and spiritual aspects God has given to man and woman.[19]

The Old Testament teaches that human being was created ‘in the image of God.’ He/she is capable of knowing and loving his/her creator, and was appointed by Him as master of all earthly creatures, that he/she may subdue them and use them to God’s glory.[20] This does not mean that he/she has to be master of his/her own species, because the dignity of every human person is stressed in the Old Testament in the creative action of God in man. What makes human being different from other creatures is that while God’s word was enough to create lower creatures, it was by the direct action of God that human being came to be. God’s part in creating human beings points out something extraordinary. It is here the dignity of human person is stressed. Human being is given the state of a top creation and is related to his/her neighbor.

Dignity is integrated into the frame of the ‘image’. As we are created in the image of God, we have a call to communion with God, and we have to have a relationship with one another; this is ‘the outstanding reason of human dignity.’[21] The reason for saying that dignity is integrated into the frame of the ‘image’ is that the same God whose image we are is the foundation and perfection of human dignity.

1.4.2.2 The New Testament

In the Old Testament the importance regarding human life was given to the ‘image’ of God. The New Testament gives importance to God creating human being out of His ‘love.’ God’s love, through Jesus, provided everything to Human Being. The Dignity of the human being as a child of God rests on the fact that he/she is called to communion with God. All men/women are called to become children of God through their obedience to God.[22]

The words and works of Jesus which were mainly oriented on ‘Love’, express the concept of the sanctity of human life. New Testament teaches that man’s life is rooted in Jesus Christ. John says that “Son of the Father was made Flesh”. This highlights that Jesus has ‘taken man’s life in its full reality’. This points out the dignity of human life. Since the life of human being is rooted in God’s free love, the dignity of human life is inalienable and unreserved.[23]

Christians believed in the brotherhood of all men. They also consider them all as persons, whether free or slaves since men have dignity as persons. The dignity is conferred upon the term ‘person’.[24] This is evident in Jesus telling the lawyer in effect that he is neighbor to any and everyone, that his group or community is mankind, and even includes his enemy. The very life of Jesus, his teachings, his suffering and death are meant to restore the dignity of human beings. The New Testament teaches that Jesus came to restore human being’s dignity, freedom and creativity which were lost by their sins.

In short the Bible speaks of human life as a gift of God. The human life is unique and superior to all other types of life. This highlights the sanctity of human life, thus giving more importance to human dignity. The Bible respects the value/dignity of human person from at the time of conception.

1.5 Essential Aspects of Human Dignity

Life is a gift man/woman received from God. To protect the life that he/she received there are some needs that are to be fulfilled. When some needs are not fulfilled in the life of a human being it affects not only his/her life but also his/her dignity. There is a need to respect individual’s freedom, and need to meet basic needs. These two aspects lead one to be an active participant in the upbringing of the society. Let us see them one by one.

1.5.1 Respect for Freedom

To ensure the harmonious growth of impulses, mind and spirit and thereby a full and happy human life, one needs the greatest degree of personal freedom and opportunity for initiative. Since he/she has to exercise his/her freedom and find opportunities for initiative in society, the burden of creating conditions and providing opportunities for their use and expression falls on society. But the organic nature of modern society exercises too much power and control over the individual.[25] Russell, who emphasized more on the freedom of individuals, made a strong statement that “Freedom is the basis of everything”. According to him “Freedom in its most abstract sense means the absence of external obstacles to the realization of desires.”[26]

Freedom is a gift to human being. It is a very singular gift unique in that in the entire immense realm of nature only human being possesses it.[27] It is freedom that defines us as real subjects and agents of our actions. We are not determined by the external factors like historical, cultural, social or political. It is true that they affect us and limit us to a large extent. Still we have capacity to choose between alternatives. This capacity to choose is the beginning of freedom.

Freedom is not merely a capacity to choose this or that. It is not also mere individual’s rights to do anything one wants. It is a capacity to choose the real person each one of us wants to be and become. It is by the type of choice we make that each one of us is determined as this or that unique person with a unique identity. Vijay K Prabhu, in his book Struggle for Freedom suggests the type of freedom we need to seek. “The freedom we should seek is not the right to oppress others, but the right to live as we choose and think as we choose our doing so does not prevent others from doing likewise.”[28]

Freedom is double edged sword. There is no good without freedom. But there is also the possibility of doing evil. It is only through freedom that one realizes his/her ‘humanity’ in pursuing values but the contrary is possible too; through freedom he/she can degrade and de-humanize himself/herself.[29]

1.5.2 Meeting of the Basic Needs

Every human person has the right to live in dignity and security. Human rights deny any form of inhuman existence or practices. Society cannot stay alone without human being. One is in need of society. No desires can be realized if the basic needs of human person are not met. No person can be said to be truly free if he/she is deprived of the basic needs: shelter, food, clothing, health; because these constitute ‘the bare minimum of freedom.’[30]

Shelter: the literal meaning of the word shelter in wider sense is anything serving as a screen or a place of refuge from weather. Second meaning is “something, which affords a refuge from danger, attack, pursuit or observation or a place of safety.”[31] Our more interest is in the second meaning. It is very essential for one’s existence. If he/she needs to be protected from all the calamities, he /she is in need of shelter. Everyone has the right to live and have his/her own residence. This expresses his/her basic physical need.

Food: food is a fundamental requisite for human life, and as might be expected, occupies an important role in the physical life. Food is a Divine providence. For the betterment of physical life, food should be safe, nutritious and palatable.[32] Human life, as physical dimension, has two basic aspects: (a) one is existence, and (b) for existence, we need food. Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well being of himself/herself and of his/her family, including food and nourishment.

Clothing: for the well being of human being and for his/her human dignity he/she is in need of clothing.[33] One is dignified when he/she has clothing, for clothing protects man from shame, nakedness and more over it gives man a kind of respect and dignity.

Health: health is another aspect of human dignity, which is essential for the growth of a healthy society. It strives to achieve a fuller harmony and healthy balance on the physical, psychological, spiritual and social level. Health is the core of all human development. It is to be understood in broader sense to include all aspects of human life: physical, social, mental and spiritual. Therefore, health would mean adequate food, clean water, clean air, and good social and inter-personal relationships.[34]

1.5.3 Participation in the Society

Another essential aspect of human dignity is one’s participation in the society. Once the above mentioned aspects- freedom and basic needs- are met, automatically one belongs to that society participating actively in the activities of the society. Because of his/her freedom and spiritual powers, the human being is capable of initiating interpersonal relations of dialogue, free exchange, free contracts, friendship, love, service of love and participating with other people.[35]

Other people play a crucial role in our lives. At different times and in different context, they are the source of many of our satisfying forms of pleasure (love, praise, assistance) and many of our important forms of pain (criticism, irritation, rejection). We spend a great deal of our time participating in the social activities with them, thinking about them and like them.[36] It is through participating in the social activity that the human brain, body, attitude, behavior, etc., are developed. Man/woman being social animals creates wider and profound relationship with one another participating in the social activities[37] which help him/her to grow with dignity as rational and social being.

1.6 Conclusion

All human beings, regardless of race, sex, age, religion or class are endowed with the same dignity that God has bestowed on each and everyone. The right to live in dignity is a universal principle from which spring all human rights. Equal dignity is founded on human rights and is committed to enforcing impartial rights for all. Whenever the dignity is violated, the dignity of life itself is put at risk.

Human being has been given a sublime dignity, based on the intimate bond which unites him to his creator. In human beings, there shines forth a reflection of God himself. This signifies the inherent dignity of the human person. There are some essential aspects which constitute the human dignity. They are to be made accessible to the individual from the society to which he/she belong. But sometimes they are not made accessible in a society that is caste-ridden. So each and everyone have to fight against that which degrades human dignity. Each society must respect the dignity of the human person, because it is they who constitute society.

CHAPTER TWO

REALIZATION OF THE DIVINE ELEMENT IN HUMAN PERSON

2.1 Introduction coercion

Human person is an expression of the Divine who lives in the soul of every human person. God and human person are inseparable realities. The main interest of the present chapter is in understanding the Divine element in the human person. It discusses the idea basing on the eastern and western approaches. Eastern approach proposes some ways to realize the Divine element in the human person which also will be discussed.

2.2 The Need to Respect the Human Life

Human person is a living being. While there are so many things that are classified as living, there is, not one which should be considered so full of life as human being. Life makes up a part of his/her essence. It is only through life that we understand man/woman. Human life is of a sort that reaches very high spiritual levels. Human life distinguishes itself from that of animals by the spiritual level (Divine) which it obtains and by the social dimensions which it reaches.[38]

Human beings are called ‘persons’ because he/she has intrinsic worth/value. He/she should be regarded as an ‘end’ for everyone. Persons are ‘self-existent’ ends, having worth simply because they exist. According to Kant, that which gives us this worth is our ‘humanity’. Unlike animals, we are free and autonomous.[39] So respect is an attitude due a person, regardless of social position, occupation, learning, and wealth or any other special qualities or talents he/she may or may not possess.

Respect for others means recognizing and appreciating their interests by making their interests our own. It means to recognize that they have a dignity as our own. All human beings must be treated as ends, and not as means. Kant is of the opinion that whenever we use others to promote our own welfare, we may humiliate them or fail to recognize the inherent dignity in them. He argued that we do not show sufficient respect for others if we don’t make their interests our own and help them as much we can.[40]

2.3 Eastern Approaches to the Divine in Others

Eastern approach to reality is seeking reality in one’s own self. The methodology of understanding, experiencing and interpreting the reality in one’s own self is called interiorization.[41] According to eastern approach, in every human being there is the Divine nature which must be realized. This chapter mainly deals with two famous sources from the east: Gītāǌali, and Tat-tvam-asi which is the greatest utterance of the Upaniṣads.

2.3.1 Gītāǌali

Tagore’s Gītāǌali sees everything that exists as spiritual. It sees God (Divine) in nature and within one’s own self. According to it, the Divine is not to be found outside human person but in the inner most sanctuary of his/her soul. In the realization of the Divine element within oneself, it is not the finite reality of the soul that is attained but the infinite reality that pervades the entire world, including human person.[42] One tries to become more human by being ever in communion with the Divine in him/her. His/her oneness with the Infinite would enable him/her to be a better person.[43]

Divine element is immanent in the universe. It pervades man’s body, heart and action. Gītāǌali says that it is the duty of a person to keep himself/herself pure and free of all evil so that his/her body, mind and heart may be temple of God.[44] God’s authorship of life itself is the perfect evidence of the Divine element in one’s self. Tagore says in Gītāǌali that self purification is necessary for Divine realization.[45]

Tagore accepts the three yōgas of Bhagavad Gīta as effective ways of the realization of the Divine of which he gives importance to action. Tagore discovers God within the life of man. Not only human beings but all objects are His manifestation. Realization is possible within the soul and nature.

2.3.2 Tat-tvam-asi

The Upaniṣadic Philosophers searched for Brahman, the ultimate reality in ātman which is the self of man. According to them, both Brahman, the transcendental principle and Ātman, the immanent principle are identical. They gave the principle the name ‘tat-tvam-asi’ meaning ‘that thou art’[46] which is the greatest of the Upaniṣadic utterance. That which is beyond caste and creed, family and lineage, which is devoid of name and form, merit and demerit, that which transcends space, time and sense objects –that Brahman art thou. Now let us see what Upaniṣads speak of the Divine element in oneself.

The fundamental doctrine of the Upaniṣads is the realization of the identity of the individual ātman (individual soul) with the world Ātman (Brahman).[47] The ātman is the psychological principal, manifested in man which is known also as Divine element. Brahman/Ātman is the cosmic principle which pervades the Universe.

Upaniṣads speak of two souls dwelling side by side in a person: the real soul and the individual soul. The individual soul experiences pain and pleasure as the result of his/her own actions. But the real soul, which is spiritual, is serene and undisturbed, because it is not attached to the world. When individual soul realizes the real soul, its grief passes away. This realization has been stated by such Vedic statement as ‘that thou art,’ ‘this self is Brahman,’ ‘I am He,’ ‘Brahman is consciousness.’[48]

Upaniṣadic understanding teaches Brahman as transcendent as well as immanent in human beings as well as in the objects of the universe. In the ‘Chandogya Upaniṣad’ this truth is revealed in the verse:

“say a ēsō animaitadātmyam idam

sarvam tat satyam

sa ātmā Tatwamasi Swētakētū.”[49]

Here Svētakētu found out that even after studying all the Vedas and even after knowing all other things that are to be known, a man remains unfulfilled of his purpose till he knows the reality of the self. His father makes him realize the Ultimate truth that “whoever knows this I am Brahman (Aham Brahmāsmi) becomes all. By meditation one realizes that the enjoyer I, the world we live in and the creator, all three are Brahma.”[50]

2.4 Mārgas for the Realization of the Divine Element

The main purpose of our life is to attain union with God. That union comes through the realization of the Divine element within human being. To accomplish this, ordinarily, three margas are being taught: Jñāna mārga, Karma mārga and Bhakti mārga. Man/woman has threefold faculties: intellect, will and emotion. Intellect has given rise to the philosophy of knowledge which is called Jñāna-yoga in Bhagavad-Gīta, will has given rise to the philosophy of action which is termed as karma-yoga and emotion has given rise to the philosophy of devotion which is called bhakti-yoga. These three mārgas are briefly explained below.

2.4.1 Jñāna Mārga

The author of the book, Hinduism: Its Meaning for the Liberation of the Spirit, Swami Nikhilananda says that the Jñāna mārga is the discipline of philosophical discrimination by which jñāna, or the knowledge of Brahman is attained.[51] The path of knowledge is sharp and ascetic, and the search for impersonal reality is extremely difficult for those who are constantly aware of their duties to the world. This path, therefore, is usually followed by monks, who have renounced the world. Sometimes even if we try to reject objects of the world, our desire for the object may remain. It is only after our communion with the Supreme that our desire ceases. “The control should be both on the body and the mind. Liberation from the oppression of the body is not enough; we must be liberated from the bondage of the desires also. This is possible only with the rise of jñāna.”[52]

It is clear in Gīta that there is nothing on earth equal in purity to wisdom. Even the most sinful man can cross over the ocean of saṁsāra by means of the boat of knowledge alone. Fire of knowledge reduces all actions to ashes just as a fire well-kindled, reduces fuel to ashes.[53] The culmination of action is in knowledge. As one meditates on his oneness with Brahman, there arises within him a mental state which makes him feel that he is Brahman.

With sincerity and zeal, earnest and perseverance, patience and love for the ideal, the devotee finally overcomes all obstacles, great and small, through the blessing of the teacher and the grace of God; he realizes his oneness with Brahman.[54]

2.4.2 Karma Mārga

Work when performed as a spiritual discipline is called karma-yoga. It is the predominant topic of the Bhagavad-Gīta.[55] According to Gīta, when the Lord, in the beginning, created men, He planted in them a propensity for action and gave the mandate that they should not only multiply by work but also thereby fulfill their desires for happiness.[56] When work is done without any desire for personal gain, it becomes spiritual action. Ordinary karma has binding quality. Man works impelled by necessity; he has no freedom.

The solution to avoid the bondage of the casual law and to work as a free agent lies in karma yoga. It is the secret of action. Bhagavad-Gīta teaches that the illumined person does not work for a result. ‘To the work alone,’ the Gīta says, ‘you have the right, never to its fruit.’[57] The Lord Himself, though He has nothing to accomplish for Himself, acts for the benefit of humanity in the spirit of detachment, disinterest, selflessness, with no desire to reap the fruit. He alone is capable of doing so. He who performs actions in a detached manner, thinking himself to be a mere instrument of God is not contaminated by sin.[58]

Action performed in the right spirit can help both, dualistic and non-dualistic aspirants to realize their respective ideals.[59] “Dualists should realize that God alone is the real doer, and that man is an instrument in His hand. They should work for God’s satisfaction, and see God in all living beings. As a result of self-less action, the devotee’s heart is purified. The pure man sees in his own heart and in the heart of others as well, vivid reflections of God. He treats all human beings alike.”[60]

2.4.3 Bhakti Mārga

Bhakti is emotional attachment distinct from knowledge and action. Through bhakti we offer our emotional possibilities to the Divine. It is open to all, weak and the lowly. Bhakti is sometimes translated as devotion and sometimes as love. Love is a creative force, and through creation one seeks joy and immortality. The most satisfying love is associated with God; Divine love is immortal because God is immortal. God is love. He who totally surrenders to God and falls at His feet will be taken care of by the Lord.[61]

One cannot fully enjoy the love of God unless one rises above all worldly attractions. One’s mind must be pure and he/she must practice detachment henceforth feeling the attraction of God and longs to be united with Him. Spiritual love, or bhakti, is directed only to God.[62] Love of God is the supreme love and every other form of love is an imperfect manifestation of this supreme love. He who knows the Lord sees the Lord in everything and everything in the Lord. When devotion is perfect, then the individual and God become suffused into one spiritual ecstasy, and reveal themselves as aspects of one life.[63]

When a man obtains love of God, he loves all, hates none, and becomes satisfied forever. In it there is no room for jealousy or hatred, because the devotee sees everything as the manifestation of God. Bhakti is both the ideal of spiritual life and the means to its attainment.[64] The discipline of bhakti is the easiest and most natural of all spiritual disciplines, because it does not demand the suppression of normal impulses; it only tells the devotee to turn them to God.

Among the three mārgas, bhakti is the most spiritual and in itself, is superior to the other two. Bhakti Purana calls bhakti ‘ekāntika dharma,’ i.e., full perfect dharma.[65] Bhakti Mārga is the way of deep love for God. We should cultivate in our hearts the feeling of intense love for God and fan to burn our attachment to Him. Hinduism teaches that the one who cultivates the habit of detachment from momentary pleasures, draws closer to God by realizing Him in others, and the bhakti sentiment grows in his/her heart.[66] Bhakti/devotion being disinterested service to God, is a form of karma. Disinterested action is not possible without true knowledge. Hence bhakti too, like niṣkāmakarma, can be performed only by a true jñāni. His/her work is absolutely unselfish, since it is indifferent to its fruits.

2.5 Western Approaches

The western approach to the Divine element in human person is mostly from the view on soul-body relationship. Plato, Aristotle, St. Thomas Aquinas and St. Augustine are the great personalities who spoke about the Divine element in Human person.

2.5.1 Plato

Plato was neither a materialist nor epiphenomenalist, but an uncompromising spiritualist. According to Plato, the soul is clearly distinct from the body; it is man’s most valuable possession, and the true tendence of the soul must be its chief concern. The reality of the soul and its pre-eminence over the body finds emphatic expression in Plato’s psychological dualism. Plato defines the soul as ‘Self-initiating motion’ or the ‘source of motion’ (τήν δυναμἒνην αύτήν χινειν χίνησιν.) [67] This being so, the soul is prior to the body in the sense that it is superior to the body and must rule the body.

According to Plato, the only existing thing which properly possesses intelligence is soul, and this is an invisible thing, whereas fire, water, earth and air are all visible bodies. The soul consists of three parts- the rational part (τò λογιστιχóν), the courageous part/spiritual part (τò θυμοειδές) and the appetitive part (τò ἐπιθυμητιχόν).[68]

The rational is that which distinguishes man from the brute, and is the highest element of the soul, being immortal and akin to the Divine. The other two formalities, the spiritual and appetitive, are perishable. Of these the spirited part is the nobler which in man is akin to moral courage, and is the natural friend of reason, though it is also found in animals. The appetite part refers to bodily desires, for the rational part of the soul has its own desires, for example, the passion for Truth.[69] The rational part of the soul, which is the immortal and Divine element (as he considers), is said to be made by the Demiurge out of the same elements as the world-soul, while the other two parts together with the body are made by the celestial Gods.

Though Plato is a dualist who spoke of soul and body as two entities, he realized the fact that the soul is a Divine element. But soul, which is spiritual, is imprisoned in the body. This Divine element has become the part of the nature of the human being. It is this Divine element in human being that makes him/her different from the beasts.

2.5.2 Aristotle

Aristotle is one of the greatest non-dualistic philosophers who maintained the inseparation of the soul from its body. According to him, soul is the first grade of actuality of a natural body having life potentially in it.[70] For him, natural body is endowed with life which he calls the composite substance. The principle of this life is called the ‘ψυχή’ (psuche), soul. Body can’t be soul, for body is not life but what has life. “The body must be as matter to the soul, while soul is as form or act to the body.”[71] The soul is the realization of the body and is inseparable from it. The soul is thus the cause and principle of the living body, (a) as source of movement, (b) as final cause, (c) as the real substance.[72]

Aristotle speaks of different types of soul in which the lowest form is the vegetative soul. This is found in all living beings; for a living being to continue existence, it is necessary. But in plants they are found alone without the higher activities of soul. Animals possess a little higher soul than plants, the sensitive soul which exercises the three powers of sense- perception, desire and local motion. Higher in the scale than the merely animal soul is the human soul. This soul unites in itself the power of the lower souls.[73]

These above stated facts implies that in human beings there is a Divine element which is absent in animals; and this is what makes him higher than the other earthly creatures. According to Aristotle, human soul is the cause of the living body. This affirms that the human soul is Divine.

2.5.3 St. Augustine

The image God in human person makes him/her superior to other earthly creatures. St. Augustine says, “Man’s excellence consists in the fact that God made him to His own image by giving him a Divine element- soul- which raises him above the beasts of the field.”[74] Human being, according to Augustine, consists of body and immortal soul. He defined man as a ‘rational soul using a mortal and earthly body.’[75] Human soul is an immaterial principle though it animates the body.

St. Augustine clearly held that the soul is created by God. He seems to have toyed with some form of the Platonic pre-existence theory while refusing to allow that the soul was put into the body as a punishment for faults committed in a pre-earthly condition.[76] It is in this idea that he slightly differs from Plato.[77]

St. Augustine says that the soul is an independent and a permanent reality. Soul is the immaterial reality from which psychic actions come. In order to prove the immortality of the soul, he uses the argument of Plato who said that the principle of life shall never die. Soul, being the principle of life, never dies that is to say it is immortal. He bases this argument on the capacity of the soul to know the external truth.

2.5.4 St. Thomas Aquinas

According to St. Thomas Aquinas, the human soul is directly created by God, and infused into the body, when the body is ready to receive the soul in the womb of the mother. It is made out of nothing. It is a spirit, having in itself no material element. Soul and body together make one substantial thing, one essence and nature; they begin to exist when this one nature begins to exist.[78]

Man’s soul is entirely in the whole body and entirely in every part of the body; thus it images the mode of God’s presence in the universe. The image of God is in every individual human being. “The Divine image of God in man reflects God in unity and also in ‘Trinity.’ The image of God is in the soul because soul can know and love God. And the Divine image is found in the soul because the soul turns to God.”[79]

It is true that all creatures have a likeness to God, some by the fact that they exist, some by the fact that they live and some by the fact that they have knowledge. But only intellectual creatures- angels and men- have a close likeness to God; only such creatures have the Divine operations of understanding and willing. Of earthly creatures, man has a true likeness to God; other creatures have a trace of God rather than an image of God.”[80] Human soul has an extrinsic dependence on the body, but not intrinsic. Human soul is a spiritual substance designed to be united with a body unlike that of angels.

2.6 Conclusion

Divine element is a part of human nature. It is this element that relates one to his/her creator. From what we have been seeing so far in this chapter, we can conclude that every human person has the Divine element in him/her. Eastern thinkers speak of the Divine element as the Divine/Ātman in individual self. In the west, we see the soul as the main Divine element in human person. It is this Divine element that makes human being different from other earthly creatures. Though Plato is a dualist who speak of the soul as imprisoned in body due to the bad action of the previous life, he maintains the spirituality of the soul.

After examining the value of human life, it is appropriate to learn the practices which degrade the human dignity due to their failure to recognize the Divine element in the human person. The paper in the next chapter concentrates on one of the main issues which is practiced mostly in India. That is the Caste System.

CHAPTER THREE

DE-HUMANIZING ASPECTS OF CASTE SYSTEM

3.1 Introduction

Caste system is a unique feature of Indian social stratification. The word ‘caste’ is used in everyday life and we use it to distinguish one person from another. When we say that such and such a person belongs to a particular caste, we mean that he/she is born of parents or is member of the family said to belong to particular caste. Today human person is oppressed in the society because of caste system. He is struggling to overcome the suffering to achieve a peaceful and just society. Today’s society assures and ensures our caste before even we could come out of our mother’s womb.

People are deprived of freedom and the right to express their own identity. They are persecuted in the name of caste. Unless the casteism is eradicated, we can’t create a better world. Though we live in twenty first century with the growth of science and technology, we find inequality and discrimination in our society. How did this caste system arise? This chapter is an attempt to bring to light the caste system as a de-humanizing factor, and also its unethical manifestations.

3.2 Terminology

The term ‘caste’ is not of Indian origin. Its origin is in the Latin word castus which means chaste and pure. The word castus became the root word of the French word casta meaning ‘breed,’ ‘race’ or a complex of hereditary qualities.[81] It was applied by the Portuguese to the particular Indian institution known by the name of jati.[82] In general the two main ideas denoted by the term ‘caste’ are: (a) a community of persons following a common occupation, (b) a community that marries only within itself.

3.3 Definitions of Caste System

It has been very difficult to define caste system in its fullness. Many people, down through the ages, have tried to define caste system. Although they failed to define the term in its fullness, they have tried, at least, to notify what it is. The chapter now discusses a few definitions by different people.

3.3.1 Herbert Risley

G. Das, in his book Introduction to Sociology, accounts the definitions of different people among whom Herbert Risle’s definition is presented at first. According to Risley, caste system is “a collection of families or group of families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow in the same hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion forming a single homogenous community.”[83]

If we analyze the definition, we find some salient features of caste system. First, each caste has its own name by which it is known; secondly, it is a dissension from ancestor following the same hereditary functions of the family.

3.3.2 Lundberg

Once a person is born into a family of a rigid social class, it is very difficult for him/her to escape from the clutches of hereditary. It is evident in the definition given by Lundberg. According to him, a caste is ‘merely a rigid social class into which members are born and from which they can withdraw or escape only with extreme difficulty. It is the type of stratification system which is most rigid in matters of mobility and distinctness of status.’[84]

It is clear from the above definition that a person born into a caste will not be allowed to abandon his/her caste and join the other caste. He/she is not able to choose his/her rank or status. If the parents are farmers, the children have to become farmers, and not teachers or priests.

3.3.3 E.A.H Blunt

E.A.H. Blunt defines caste system as “an endogamous group bearing a common name, membership of which is hereditary, imposing on members certain restrictions in the matter of social intercourse either following a common traditional occupation or claiming a common origin and generally regarded as forming a single homogeneous community.”[85]

The definition of Blunt is similar to that of Risley and Lundberg. In other words, it is the combination of definitions of Risley and Lundberg. It has the same elements that are in their definitions.

3.4 Characteristics of Caste System.

To give a complete idea of what a caste is, the characteristics of caste must be understood. The following characteristics are taken from the above mentioned definitions. They give us more or less the idea of caste system.

3.4.1 Caste is determined by Birth

The membership of caste is determined by birth. A person remains the member of the caste into which he/she is born and his/her membership does not undergo any change even if changes in his/her status, occupation, wealth etc. take place.[86] The child at birth takes the rank of his/her parents.

3.4.2 Occupations are fixed by Caste

Members of a particular caste are expected to follow the caste occupation. They cannot change their occupation to other.[87] Every caste regards some occupations as it’s own hereditary, rejections of which is not thought to be desirable. No one is allowed to take any occupation other than that of his/her caste. In Hindu society, even today in most cases the children of a blacksmith pursue the occupation of their parents.

3.4.3 Caste is Endogamous

The choice of mates in caste system is generally endogamous. Members have to marry within their own castes. A member marrying outside his/her caste is treated an outcaste. Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya and Śudra all marry within their respective castes. Hindu community, though not all, does not sanctify inter-caste marriage even now.[88]

3.4.4 Restrictions on Social Inter-Course

Another element of caste is the complex of taboos by which the superior castes try to preserve their ceremonial purity. There are restrictions on social inter-course.[89] Contact with other groups is further limited by restrictions on touching, associating with, or dining with outsiders. The very touch and sometimes even the shadow of the members of the lower caste are enough to defile an individual of a high caste.

3.5 Origin of Caste System

In the beginning of the Vedic civilization, caste system was not based on person’s birth. Members of one family took different professions.[90] They used to perform their own duties and preferred to lead a happy life. The concept of hereditary trade and occupation was not there.

The caste system among the Aryans seems to have begun in the later Vedic age. With the increase in number of professions, the society was gradually divided into four distinct varṇas – Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya and Śudra. The teachers and priests were called Brāhmaṇas; rulers and administrators were called Kṣatriyas; farmers, merchants and bankers were called Vaiśyas, while artisans and labourers came to be known as Śudras.[91]

The exact origin of caste system cannot be traced. But attempts have been made to explain the origin of the system. From the different explanations there came theories regarding the origin of Caste System. A few theories will be discussed below.

3.5.1 Racial Theory

The caste system took its birth after the arrival of the Aryans in India. In order to differentiate themselves, the Indo-Aryans used for certain groups the favourite term ‘Varṇa,’ color.[92] Rig-Veda referred to the word varṇa denoting the Arya, the fair coloured and Dasa, the dark coloured. But there was no reference to Brāhmaṇa or Kṣatriya and the distinction was made on racial and cultural basis.[93]

Aryavarṇa constitutes Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya and Vaiśya, and non-Aryavarṇa is made up of Dasavarṇa. The Rig-Veda has made reference regarding the four orders of society as Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya and Śudra. They were said to have originated from the mouth, the arms, the thigh and the feet of the creator.

3.5.2 Political Theory

According to this theory caste system is a clever device invented by the Brahmins in order to place themselves in a high position in the society. “Caste is a Brahminic child of Indo-Aryan culture cradled in the land of the Ganges and from there transferred to other parts of India.”[94] The first three classes are called Dwija (twice born) because they have to go through the initiation ceremony which is symbolic of rebirth. The Śudra was called ‘ekajati’ (once born). The dwija people took control over the ekajati people. Here a clear hierarchy evolved between various varṇas with Brāhmaṇa at the top and Śudra at the bottom.

3.5.3 Occupational Theory

According to this theory, the origin of caste system can be found in the nature and quality of social work performed by the group of people. The persons who performed the better and respectable jobs were regarded superior to those who did unrespectable jobs.[95] Occupations like artisans, money lenders, priests, officials, administrators and servants were identified in the medieval period.

The Brahmins did their traditional work and served the Hindu society. The Kṣatriyas were rajas and served the court and territory. The Vaiśyas were the rich people. They were engaged in prosperous economic activities like banking, commerce, trade and crafts etc. The Śudras remained in their low position, and suffered many disabilities.[96] When there was differentiation in functions, there arose different occupations as a result numerous sub-castes came into existence.

3.6 Unethical Manifestations of Caste System

Immoral activities, such as treating human beings as mere objects, using them for one’s own purposes, have arisen from the firm practice of the unethical system like caste system. Caste system degrading human being is a known fact. From this system arise many evil practices. The chapter now discusses the main practices that have arisen due to its firmness in society.

3.6.1 Gender Discrimination

Gender discrimination is one of the evil practices that arose from the strict practice of the caste system. It is due to one’s failure to recognize the equal dignity of men and women. The gender biases arose on the basis of the physical strength and structure. But it is not a criterion to affirm any person as stronger and superior to the other. Because such a thought is against the teaching of the Bible that all are created equally. It teaches the equality of the sexes; men as well as women are equal in God’s image. It is evident in the book Genesis 1:27: “God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them.”[97] Man and women constitute a community, supposed to be, of equality, reciprocity and love.

Gender equality means equal access to the opportunities that allow people to pursue a life of their own. It includes gender equality in rights, resources and voice. Equality of rights means equality under the law. Equality of resources means equality of opportunity to use capital investment and other productive resources. Equality of voice means the ability to influence and contribute to the political discourses and the development process.[98]

The above mentioned equalities will not be granted to every woman in a society which firmly follows the caste system. Women in the society are considered as mere possessions and sexual objects and not as individual beings with rights of their own. They are seen as the ‘weaker sex.’ They are deprived of higher education. Sometimes their dignity as persons is brought to the level of animals. In the absence of discrimination, all can develop as they wish, thus ensuring respect for individual personality.

3.6.2 Inequality

In a society, where caste system is strictly followed, equality is not maintained among the members of the society. He/she becomes an instrument of the ruling caste. He/she looses the attribute essential for overall development and improvement of his/her personality in a caste-ridden society. All the achievements become useless if equality is not guaranteed to the persons. Inequality is created by the rich class against poorer classes.

There have been many declarations and constitutions recognizing equality as an essential part of society. The French Universal Declaration of the rights of man (1789) says: “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.”[99] Equality is very important for one’s development, because when the people are discriminated on grounds of caste, color, community, region, tribe, place of birth etc., it develops a sense of inferiority in the person which blocks the development of personality. Instead, if all are given equal respect and rights, each can grow according to one’s ability and talent irrespective of caste or color.[100]

All are equal in the eyes of God; no one is higher or lower than the other. Every one’s life is based on cooperation and understanding of each other. In the process of living together, people develop harmony which leads to fraternity. But this sense is lost when we cling to the caste system. Lower class people lose their dignity as persons due to the mistreatment of the rich class. The rich fail to recognize the divine in the poor classes.

Caste society is not an egalitarian[101] society because it does not recognize the equal innate moral status in everyone. The fundamental laws of the state should apply to everyone equally, with no exceptions made in favor of the wealthy or the powerful, the gifted or the educated. Everyone is entitled to equal respect before the law.[102]

3.6.3 Honour Killing

Along with maintaining an unjust structure, supporting the Caste System has brought extreme brutality. This is evident in the honour killing. The process/action of honour killing in not new but the term ‘honour killing’ is new. Families killing their disobedient youth, who preferred to get married on their choice, transcending the boundaries laid by social custom is called ‘honour killing.’[103]

This clearly means that the choice of a girl or a boy as life partner has to conform to the norms of the community practicing the caste system. disobedient to this norm leads one to face the consequence, even death. It is the ‘make believe honour of the family which is carried forward by the close relatives like brothers, uncles, etc.’[104] His/her decision is depended on the society, even in choosing his/her life partner, occupation, etc.

Honour killing goes against the dignity of human life. It goes against the commandment “you shall not murder.” which is a divine commandment. Pope John Paul II says in his encyclical Evangelium Vitae that “human life is given a sacred and inviolable character, which reflects the inviolability of the creator himself. Precisely for this reason, God will judge every violation of the commandment you shall not kill.”[105]

3.7 Attempts made to Denounce Caste System

When we see the dominion of the caste system in India, a question may arise: has not any one tried to eradicate or weaken the system? There have been attempts made to denounce, or at least destroy some of its evil practices like untouchability, inequality, sati, etc. The best known people who fought to destabilize, at least some of the unethical practices of caste system are, Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B.R Ambedkar. The paper now will discuss them.

3.7.1 Mahatma Gandhi

On one hand Gandhi’s fight for social justice was a fight on behalf of women and on the other hand it was a fight on behalf of the untouchables. He sternly spoke against the practice of untouchability. He risked his life in order to bring them social equality. He pleaded for equality ‘with the law, in the matter of basic human rights, irrespective of caste, race, creed or colour. He wanted everyman to be treated equal.

He spoke of inter-subjectivity in the society. He says that it is essential for one to realize the dignity of labour and to perform every works he/she is capable of. He said so because of his conviction that it is through working that one is related to the other. If every individual is allowed to do every kind of work one is capable of, then the doctrine of varṇa would fall down.[106] He called this doctrine ‘Bread Labour.’ It is one of the ways he thought for preventing and eradicating social inequality.

He also spoke of equality of wages, equality of men and women. He says ‘men and women have the same soul, and therefore are equal. The work assigned to one is not inferior to the work assigned to the other.’[107] Gandhi wanted to establish and propagate dignity of labour in a society divided in a straight jacket of basically fourfold—class society.

Gandhi undertook fast for the removal of. The names ‘untouchable’ and ‘depressed classes’ were given up and he called the untouchable by a new name, ‘Harijan,” the children or people of God. He invited Harijans to his Ashram to live as members of one family. He adopted a Harijan girl. He encouraged other caste members to marry Harijans. The strong intention he had in eradicating untouchability can be evident in his own words: “What I want, what I am living for, and what I should delight in dying for, is the eradication of untouchability root and branch.[108]

3.7.2 B.R. Ambedkar

Another great person who fought to destroy caste distinction was Dr. B.R Ambedkar. Born in a particular caste, his social status, his profession, his material relations, his relationship with other individuals of other castes were fixed by the caste regulations. He was not free. His liberty was sacrificed at the altar of his caste-status. He believed that through the device of proper system of education, the equality among people can be brought. And also he thought that equality can be brought among people through elimination of the ideas of social hierarchy based upon caste complex from the mind of the people.[109]

Ambedkar, with a view to bring about equality in status as well as progress, suggested the remedy of adopting the principle of inequality and to give favoured treatment to those who are below level. To spread education, to improve economic conditions and represent the grievances of the depressed classes, he along with others formed Bahikrit Hitkarini Sabha (Association for the Welfare of the Depressed Classes) in 1924.[110]

Later he realized the incapability of the lower caste people in acquiring the higher education. They were economically backward. The higher education was costly. He sought to make higher education cheaper for the lower classes. He raised his voice for the ‘reservation’ of the seats in schools and colleges for the lower class. To him equality meant the raising of the level of the lower classes to that of the higher. Reservation was required for the dalits not because of poverty but for the social dishonor and the caste discrimination they had been subjected to over three hundred years.

3.8 Conclusion

This concluding chapter was on the presentation of caste system as an evil practice in the Indian society. The chapter discussed caste system in general; its nature, origin and different theories regarding the origin of caste system. Since ancient days, the human society with its culture of caste system has disfigured the face of our mother India. Caste might continue until it is gradually overtaken by the principles such as equality, freedom, fraternity, belief of the divine element in oneself and others, etc.

Caste system is responsible for the suffering of a particular section of the society who are untouchables. Caste system gives low status to women by denying education. The low class people were in need of a person to liberate them from the high class people. There came two great personalities to destabilize the caste manifestation and to lift the lower class people to the level of higher class. They were Mahatma Gandhi and B.R Ambedkar.

Both, Ambedkar and Gandhi, fought for the scheduled castes and tribes. Gandhiji wanted to end injustice; Ambedkar advocated rebellion against caste distinctions. Gandhiji insisted on eradication of untouchablity, and Ambedkar indignantly insisted on the abolition of varṇa structure and graded inequality and wanted to level up the society.

CONCLUSION

Human life is the greatest gift of God. God is the author of human life. Therefore no one has the right to take it away either from oneself or from others. Only God is the master of human being. This means that human being has no right to become the master of his own species. He/she has no right to dominate the other. The overarching inequality today is between the rich and the poor. The poor, the oppressed caste people, the minorities, the tribal people are discriminated against, dominated over and oppressed today by the higher class people. The poor seem to have no right in society.

Every human being, irrespective of caste, color, and race must be privileged to have the basic elements of human dignity. He/she should not be denied of freedom and basic needs which constitute the minimum needs of a person. Social participation is very important to an individual for it is this element that recognizes the fact that human beings are social animals. It is these elements that help one to realize whether the dignity of person is respected or not.

Sometimes people fail to recognize the divine element in persons. It is also this divine element present in human beings that makes a person dignified. Both, the east and the west, recognize this fact. In the east, some ways/mārgas have been proposed for the realization of the divine element. According to them, it can be realized through jñāna mārga (knowledge), karma mārga (action) and bhakti mārga (devotion). The west may not have proposed ways for the realization, but they acknowledge the fact.

Though Plato spoke of dualism, he recognized the divinity of the soul. The other three great philosophers—Aristotle, St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas, as mentioned in the paper, acknowledged the soul as the divine element. If everyone has an inherent dignity as persons and if he/she has this divine aspect in him/her, why is there discrimination, inequality, injustice, etc, in the world? All these discriminations, inequality, injustice etc., arise from the strict adherence to the caste system. The fact that caste system is an evil to be resisted in any society is being acknowledged by almost everyone. Yet it has never been totally uprooted from the Indian society. Caste system embodies a fundamental denial of equality since it creates classes based on birth and profession.

No being on the earth has the same dignity as human beings. But sometimes human beings are being treated like animals deprived of the dignity bestowed on them by their creator. They are not privileged to practice their rights as human beings. I am not making a universal statement because every society may not be that much strict in following the caste system. But this is prevalent in most of the societies of the world. It is more prevalent in India.

Why is there discrimination among the people? The answer is that the people are blind to the condition of the society. They are not able to see others as persons who are just like them, with the same dignity they have. Some groups of people think that they are superior to the other. That is why there are many divisions in the society, based on superiority, power, race, color, etc. People also are not able to see the divine in the other; they fail to recognize the fact every human being is being created in the image and likeness of God.

The fact that we are created in the image of God leads us to realize the fact, that the human being possesses an untainted dignity imparted to him/her as a result of his unique relationship with Brahman. The dignity reposed in human being belongs to his/her very nature; it forms his/her intrinsic nature. This fact cannot be forgotten even if one is born in a particular caste. Our soul, which is a divine element, participates in the nature of Divine in as much as it is a direct creation of God.

Such a realization that human being possesses an intrinsic dignity, and in oneself there is the divine element, would lead one to denounce or destabilize caste system and the unethical manifestations which arise from the firm practice of caste system.

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Sullivan, Roger J. An Introduction to Kant’s Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

Thachil, Jose. An Initiation to Indian Philosophy. Aluva: Pontifical Institute of Theology and Philosophy, 2000.

Therukattil, George. Becoming Human: A Study in Philosophical Anthropology. Bangalore: JIP Publications, 1999.

Vattakalam, Joseph. Mysticism in Tagore’s Gitanjali. Trivandrum: Carmel International Publishing House, 1999.

Vineeth, V. Francis. Foundations of World Vision: A Guide to Metaphysics Eastern and Western. Bangalore: Dharmaram Publications, 1985.

B. Articles

“Dignity.” Oxford Dictionary and Thesaurus. Edited by Julia Elliot. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Hornby, A. S. “Shelter.” Oxford: Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. Edited by Sally Wehmeir. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. 6:1180.

Parinthirickal, Mathew. “Caste System.” Vijnanadipti: A Journal of Philosophico-Theological Reflection. 8, n.2 (June 2006), 156.

Plathottam, George. “Women Power Seals New Heights.” Indian Currents (March, 2010), 119.

Puniyani, Ram. “Taking India Backward.” Indian Currents (May, 2010), 26.

Willams, M. Monier. “Dignity.” A Dictionary of English and Sanskrit. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas Publishers Private Limited, 1992.

C. Unpublished Materials

B, Kiran Kumar. Jesus’ Vision on Human Dignity (B.Th Dissertation). Jyotir Bhavan Institute of Theology and Spirituality, Kalamassery, 2009.

Joseph, Francis. Ramanuja’s Understanding of Man in the Viśiṣṭādvaita Philosophy: A Valid Proposed for the Destabilization of Caste System (Doctoral Dessertation). Salesian Pontifical University, Rome, 2010.

Vattukulam, Francis. Philosophical Anthropology (class notes). Don Bosco College, Aluva, 2011.

[1] Hugo A. Bedau, Justice and Equality (New York: Blackwell Publishers limited, 1971), 5.

[2] Francis Vattukulam, “Meaning of Dignity,” Philosophical Anthropology (class notes, Don Bosco College, Aluva, 2011), 1.

[3] Julia Elliot, ed., “Dignity,” Oxford Dictionary and Thesaurus (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001), 205.

[4] Vattukulam, Philosophical Anthropology, 1.

[5] M. Monier-Willams, “Dignity,” A Dictionary of English and Sanskrit (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas Publishsers Private Limited, 1992), 182.

[6] Bedau, Justice and Equality, 5-6.

[7] Vattukulam, Philosophical Anthropology, 3.

[8] Vattukulam, Philosophical Anthropology, 4.

[9] Mary Scaria, ed., Human Rights, Law and Gender Justice (Delhi: Media House, 2007), 33-34.

[10] Francis Chittuparambil, The Human Body In Bioethics: Christian and Upanishadic Perspectives (Bangalore: Asian Trading Corporation, 2011), 504.

[11] Chittuparambil, The Human Body in Bioethics, 504.

[12] Chittuparambil, The Human Body in Bioethics, 539.

[13] According to Christian understanding, the body is essentially united with the soul and even death cannot eternally separate them. On the day of resurrection, the soul and body together are resurrected. Chittuparambil, The Human Body in Bioethics, 542.

[14] Chittuparambil, The Human Body in Bioethics, 543.

[15] Chittuparambil, The Human Body in Bioethics, 125.

[16] Kumar.B, Jesus’ Vision on Human Dignity, 31-32.

[17] The divine judgment on sin has the purpose not merely of punishment but also of providence and preservation of mankind.

[18] R. Leela Devi, Ethics (Delhi: Sri Sat Guru Publications, 1993), 98.

[19] Scaria Kanniyakonil, The Fundamentals of Bioethics: Legal Perspectives and Ethical Approaches (Kottayam: Oriental Institute of Religious India, 2007), 250.

[20] George Karakunnel, The Christian Vision of Man (Bangalore: Asian Trading Corporation, 1984), 76.

[21] Karakunnel, The Christian Vision of Man, 88-89.

[22] Kumar B, Jesus’ Vision on Human Dignity, 59.

[23] Kanniyakonil, The Fundamentals of Bioethics, 251.

[24] Ivo Coelho, ed., Brahman and Person: Essays by Richard De Smet (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, 2010), 119.

[25] Vijay K. Prabhu, Struggle for Freedom (Madras: T.R Publications Private Ltd, 1991), 52.

[26] Prabhu, Struggle for Freedom, 53.

[27] George Therukattil, Becoming Human: A Study in Philosophical Anthropology (Bangalore: JIP Publications, 1999), 161.

[28] Prabhu, Struggle for Freedom, 55.

[29] Jean L. Mercier, Being Human: Basic Element of Philosophical Anthropology (Bangalore: Asian Trading Croporation, 2011), 68.

[30] Prabhu, Struggle for Freedom, 54.

[31] A. S Hornby, “Shelter,” Oxford: Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, Sally Wehmeir, ed., 6^th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 1180.

[32] Kumar, Jesus’ Vision on Human Dignity, 11.

[33] Kumar, Jesus’ Vision on Human Dignity, 11.

[34] Baiju Julian and Hormis Mynatty, ed., Catholic Contributions to Bioethics: Reflections on Evangelium Vitae, (Bangalore: Asian Trading Corporation, 2007), 62.

[35] Coelho, Brahman and Person, 60.

[36] Robert Baron, Social Psychology: Understanding Human Interaction (Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Private Ltd, 1993), 5.

[37] G. Das, Introduction to Sociology (New Delhi: Forward Publishing Company, n.d.), 57.

[38] Battista Mondin, Philosophical Anthropology (Bangalore: Theological Publications in India, 1985), 49-50.

[39] Roger J. Sullivan, An Introduction to Kant’s Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 68.

[40] Sullivan, An Introduction to Kant’s Ethics, 78-79.

[41] V. Francis Vineeth, Foundations of World Vision: A Guide to Metaphysics Eastern and Western (Bangalore: Dharmaram Publications, 1985), 13.

[42] Grace J. Mankuzhikary, Metaphysical Vision of Tagore, Joseph Therattil, ed. (Kochi: np, 2000), 116.

[43] Joseph Vattakalam, Mysticism in Tagore’s Gitanjali (Trivandrum: Carmel International Publishing House, 1999), 107.

[44] Tomy Edacheriparambil, God-Concept in Gitanjali (Bangalore: Claretians Publications, 1990), 60.

[45] Edacheriparambil, God-Concept in Gitanjali, 61.

[46] Francis Chittuparambil, The Human Body in Bioethics: Christian and Upanishadic Perspectives (Bangalore: Asian Trading Corporation, 2011), 88.

[47] The word ātman with small ‘a’ refers to the individual soul and the word Ātman with capital letter ‘A’ refers to Brahman.

[48] Swami Nikhilananda, Hinduism: Its Meaning for the Liberation of the Spirit (Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Math, n. d), 50.

[49] “This whole world consists of It, that is the real, that is the soul, That art thou O, Swetaketu.” Chandogya Upanishad, Translated by Swami Gambhirananda (Culcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1997), 472.

[50] K. S. Krishna Moorthy, Essence of Upaniṣads (Mangalore: Sharada Press, 2001), 16.

[51] Nikhilanada, Hinduism: Its Meaning for the Liberation of the Spirit, 119.

[52] Jose Thachil, An Initiation to Indian Philosophy (Aluva: Pontifical Institute of Theology and Philosophy, 2000), 60.

[53] Thachil, An Initiation to Indian Philosophy, 60.

[54] Nikhilananda, Hinduism: Its Meaning for the Liberation of theSpirit, 128.

[55] Nikhilananda, Hinduism: Its Meaning for the Liberation of the Spirit, 97.

[56] Nikhilananda, Hinduism: Its Meaning for the Liberation of the Spirit, 99.

[57] Nikhilananda, Hinduism: Its Meaning for the Liberation of the Spirit, 99-100.

[58] Jose Thachil, An Initiation to Indian Philosophy, 66.

[59] Dualists aim at Divine realization mainly through love, and non-dualists at self realization through philosophical discrimination. Nikhilananda, Hinduism: Its Meaning for the Liberation of the Spirit, 102.

[60] Nikhilananda, Hinduism: Its Meaning for the Liberation of the Spirit, 104.

[61] Thachil, An Initiation to Indian Philosophy, 66-67.

[62] Nikhilanada, Hinduism: Its Meaning for the Liberation of the Spirit, 108.

[63] Thachil, An Initiation to Indian Philosophy, 69.

[64] Nikhilanada, Hinduism: Its Meaning for the Liberation of the Spirit, 109.

[65] Swami Narendranand, Hindu Spirituality (Uttar Pradesh: Jyoti Ashram, n. d), 1.

[66] Narendranand, Hindu Spirituality, 11.

[67] Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy, Vol 1 (New York: Doubleday, 1993), 207.

[68] Copleston, A History of Philosophy, 208.

[69] Copleston, A History of Philosophy, 208-209.

[70] William Benton, The Works of Aristotle, Vol. 1 (Chicago: The University of Chicago, 1952), 642-643.

[71] Copleston, A History of Philosophy, 327.

[72] Benton, The Works of Aristotle, 645.

[73] Copleston, A History of Philosophy, 328.

[74] Paul J. Glenn, A Tour of the Summa of St. Thomas Aquinas (Bangalore: Theological Publications in India, 1993), 78.

[75] Copleston, A History of Philosophy, 78.

[76] Copleston, A History of Philosophy, 79.

[77] Plato maintained the spirituality of the human soul, while not seeing its substantial union with the body. He said that the soul is imprisoned in the body.

[78] Glenn, A Tour of the Summa of St. Tomas Aquinas, 76-77.

[79] Glenn, A Tour of the Summa of St. Thomas Aquinas, 79.

[80] Glenn, A Tour of the Summa of St. Thomas Aquinas, 78.

[81] Mathew Parinthirickal, “Caste System,” Vijnanadipti: A Journal of Philosophico-Theological Reflection, Vol. 8, No.2 (June 2006), 156.

[82] Pascual Gisbert, Fundamentals of Sociology, 3^rd edn. (Kolkata: Orient Longmant Private Limited, 1973), 376.

[83] G. Das, Introduction to Sociology (New Delhi: Forward Publishing Company, n. d), 360.

[84] Das, Introduction to Sociology, 360.

[85] Das, Introduction to Sociology, 360.

[86] R.N. Sharma, Society in India: An Overview (Delhi: Surjeet Publications, 2005), 23.

[87] Das, Introduction to Sociology, 361.

[88] Sharma, Society in India, 23.

[89] Das, Introduction to Sociology, 361.

[90] Mandakini Das, Soma Chand and Kalindi Jeva, Indian Society and Culture (Ludhiana: Kalyani Publishers, 2005), 161.

[91] Das, Indian Society and Culture, 161.

[92] Das, Introduction to Sociology, 362.

[93] Shiela Antony, Sociology II (Trissur: Excel Publishers, 2001), 87.

[94] Das, Introduction to Sociology, 362.

[95] Das, Introduction to Sociology, 362.

[96] Antony, Sociology II, 89.

[97] George Plathottam, “Women Power Seals New Heights,” Indian Currents (March, 2010), 19.

[98] Plathottam, “Women Power Seals New Heights,” Indian Currents, 27.

[99] M. N. Suresh Kumar and G. R. Poornima, Fundamentals of Political Science and Government (Bangalore: Sapna Book House, 2007) 60.

[100] Suresh Kumar, Fundamentals of Political Science and Government, 61.

[101] ‘Egalitarianism’ requires equality of opportunity in the sense that everyone must be permitted to strive for and, if possible, attain whatever status to which he/she aspires within the opportunities of a free society; and no one may unlawfully hinder others’ aspirations.

[102] Roger J. Sullivan, An Introduction to Kant’s Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 16.

[103] Ram Puniyani, “Taking India Backward,” Indian Currents (May, 2010), 26.

[104] Puniyani, “Taking India Backward,” Indian Currents, 26.

[105] Scaria Kanniyakonil, The Fundamentals of Bioethics: Legal Perspectives and Ethical Approaches (Kottayam: Oriental Institute of Religious India, 2007), 250.

[106] Basant Kumar Lal, Contemporary Indian Philosophy (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1992), 142.

[107] Lal, Contemporary Indian Philosophy, 145-146.

[108] Lal, Contemporary Indian Philosophy, 131-132.

[109] J. J. Shukla, B. R Ambedkar, Gandhi and Tagore: A Comparative Study on Education (Ahmedabad: Karnavati Publication, 1998), 12-13.

[110] Shukla, B. R Ambedkar, Gandhi and Tagore: A Comparative Study on Education, 19.

Comments

Punith Balraj. R24 January 2013 at 00:44
it is clearly said about the caste system.
thanx.
it is helpful to me
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A Thesis on Caste System

INTRODUCTION

1.4.1 The Upaniṣadic Understanding

1.4.2 The Biblical Understanding

2.1 Introduction coercion

3.4 Characteristics of Caste System.

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